From the early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, the development of secular singing was furthered by minstrels who spread the knowledge of music among the peoples of Europe. These musicians, called troubadours and troindres 1 in France, and mennestngers (love singers) and meistersingers (master singers) in Germany flourished for several centuries. Their songs, usually original in both words and music, were sung to instrumental accompaniment. Contests, or "tournaments of song," 2 gave opportunity to display vocal talent and no doubt served as an incentive to study.

About the year 1600 evolved opera and oratorio, as we know them today. These developments greatly promoted the art of singing. In order to prepare vocalists for careers, singing teachers came into prominence. Bovicelli, Caccini, Zacconi, Cruger, and Bacilly were some of the famous teachers of this early period whose names are familiar to us through writings that describe their methods. The ideas of these early masters were brought together by Porpora (1686-1766) who established what later was termed the "old Italian school of singing." Following Porpora were many successful teachers, notable among them being Pacchiarotti and Francesco Saverio Garcia. Thereafter the name Garcia figured prominently in the singing world for many years. Probably the most important member of this famous family was:

1 These names are derived from the verb treksr meaning originally "find" or "invent." See references in Grove’s Dictionary.
2 In Wagner’s operas "Tannhinser" and "The Mastersingers of Nuremberg," such competitions arc reconstructed
with historical accuracy.

Manuel Patricio Rodriguez Garcia (18o5-1906) who was renowned not only as a teacher of singing but as a scientist by his invention of the laryngoscope, an instrument for examining the interior of the larynx that is still used by medical doctors. Among Garcia•s most distinguished pupils was Jenny Lind, the Norwegian soprano, the first great prima donna from Europe to concertize in America.

Other teachers who gained distinction during the nineteenth century were Mathilde Marchesi, who numbered among her pupils many of the most prominent singers of our era, as for example, Nellie Melba, Emma Eames, and Emma Calve; Giovanni Sbriglia who trained the de Reszke brothers and Pol Plancon; Sangiovanni who taught Lillian Nordica; Lamperti who instructed Marcella Sembrich in the art of singing; and Lombardi who guided the famous tenor, Enrico Caruso. The celebrated prima donna, Adelina Patti, was a pupil of her sister Carlotta, her half-brother Barili, and Maurice Strakosch. Lilli Lehmann, the Bavarian operatic soprano, began her vocal lessons with her mother. Later she studied roles with Wagner himself.

The distinguished contralto Ernestine Schumann-Heink, who made her operatic debut in 1878, studied with her mother Marietta von Le Clair and with Dr. Wollner. Louise Homer, an eminent American contralto, was a pupil of W. L. Whitney and of her husband, the eminent composer, Sidney Homer. Many of these famous singers in the so-called golden age of singing became teachers when they discontinued their public careers, as for example, Jean de Reszke, Lilli Lehmann, and Marcella Sembrich. In turn their pupils today are serving to perpetuate the vocal methods and the singing traditions begun years ago.

For a long time instruction in the vocal art was given chiefly by teachers in private studios and conservatories. Gradually voice training has become a part of the curriculum of colleges and universities, thereby widening its range of usefulness. More recently voice instruction in classes has been introduced into secondary education. Although not now universally accepted as a high school subject, the number of schools considering it so have made it possible for many boys and girls to learn how to use their voices to the best advantage, hastening the day when Americans will not only sing so as to give pleasure to themselves and others, but also will speak in a pleasing and effective way.

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